Memory as sieve
The 20th century is on the path to becoming a moral memory palace: a
pedagogically serviceable Chamber of Historical Horrors for those who would
forget the lessons of the century or who failed to learn them
BY TONY JUDT
T he 20th century is
hardly behind us but already its quarrels and its achievements, its ideals and
its fears are slipping into the obscurity of mis-memory. In the West, we have
made haste to dispense whenever possible with the economic, intellectual and
institutional baggage of the 20th century and encouraged others to do likewise.
In the wake of 1989, with boundless confidence and insufficient reflection, we
put the 20th century behind us and strode boldly into its successor swaddled in
self-serving half-truths: the triumph of the West, the end of History, the
unipolar American moment, the ineluctable march of globalisation and the free
market.
The belief that that was then and this is now embraced much more
than just the defunct dogmas and institutions of cold war-era communism. During
the 1990s, and again in the wake of September 11, 2001, I was struck more than
once by a perverse contemporary insistence on not understanding the context of
our present dilemmas, at home and abroad; on not listening with greater care to
some of the wiser heads of earlier decades; on seeking actively to forget rather
than remember, to deny continuity and proclaim novelty on every possible
occasion. We have become stridently insistent that the past has little of
interest to teach us. Ours, we assert, is a new world; its risks and
opportunities are without precedent.
Perhaps this is not surprising. The recent past is the hardest
to know and understand. Moreover, the world really has undergone a remarkable
transformation since 1989 and such transformations are always unsettling for
those who remember how things were before. In the decades following the French
revolution the douceur de vivre of the vanished ancien régime was
much regretted by older commentators. A century later, evocations and memoirs of
pre-World War I Europe typically depicted (and still depict) a lost civilisation,
a world whose illusions had quite literally been blown apart: "Never such
innocence again."1
But there is a difference. Contemporaries might have regretted
the world before the French revolution. But they had not forgotten it. For much
of the 19th century Europeans remained obsessed with the causes and meaning of
the upheavals that began in 1789. The political and philosophical debates of the
Enlightenment had not been consumed in the fires of revolution. On the contrary,
the revolution and its consequences were widely attributed to that same
enlightenment which thus emerged – for friend and foe alike – as the
acknowledged source of the political dogmas and social programmes of the century
that followed.
In a similar vein, while everyone after 1918 agreed that things
would never be the same again, the particular shape that a post-war world should
take was everywhere conceived and contested in the long shadow of 19th century
experience and thought. Neoclassical economics, liberalism, Marxism (and its
communist stepchild), "revolution", the bourgeoisie and the proletariat,
imperialism and "industrialism" – the building blocks of the 20th century
political world – were all 19th century artefacts. Even those who, along with
Virginia Woolf, believed that "on or about December 1910 human character
changed" – that the cultural upheaval of Europe’s fin de siècle had
utterly transformed the terms of intellectual exchange – nonetheless devoted a
surprising amount of energy to shadow-boxing with their predecessors.2
The past hung heavy across the present.
Today, in contrast, we wear the last century rather lightly. To
be sure, we have memorialised it everywhere: shrines, inscriptions, "heritage
sites", even historical theme parks are all public reminders of "the Past". But
the 20th century that we have chosen to commemorate is curiously out of focus.
The overwhelming majority of places of official 20th century memory are either
avowedly nostalgo-triumphalist – praising famous men and celebrating famous
victories – or else, and increasingly, they are opportunities for the
recollection of selective suffering.
The 20th century is thus on the path to becoming a moral memory
palace: a pedagogically serviceable Chamber of Historical Horrors whose way
stations are labelled "Munich" or "Pearl Harbour", "Auschwitz" or "Gulag",
"Armenia" or "Bosnia" or "Rwanda"; with "9/11" as a sort of supererogatory coda,
a bloody postscript for those who would forget the lessons of the century or who
failed to learn them. The problem with this lapidary representation of the last
century as a uniquely horrible time from which we have now, thankfully, emerged
is not the description – it was in many ways a truly awful era, an age of
brutality and mass suffering perhaps unequalled in the historical record. The
problem is the message: that all of that is now behind us, that its meaning is
clear and that we may now advance – unencumbered by past errors – into a
different and better era.
But such official commemoration does not enhance our
appreciation and awareness of the past. It serves as a substitute, a surrogate.
Instead of teaching history, we walk children through museums and memorials.
Worse still, we encourage them to see the past – and its lessons – through the
vector of their ancestors’ suffering. Today the "common" interpretation of the
recent past is thus composed of the manifold fragments of separate pasts, each
of them (Jewish, Polish, Serb, Armenian, German, Asian-American, Palestinian,
Irish, homosexual...) marked by its own distinctive and assertive victimhood.
The resulting mosaic does not bind us to a shared past, it
separates us from it. Whatever the shortcomings of the national narratives once
taught in school, however selective their focus and instrumental their message,
they had at least the advantage of providing a nation with past references for
present experience. Traditional history, as taught to generations of
schoolchildren and college students, gave the present a meaning by reference to
the past: today’s names, places, inscriptions, ideas and allusions could be
slotted into a memorised narrative of yesterday. In our time however this
process has gone into reverse. The past now acquires meaning only by reference
to our many and often contrasting present concerns.
This disconcertingly alien character of the past is doubtless in
part the result of the sheer speed of contemporary change. "Globalisation"
really has churned up people’s lives in ways that their parents or grandparents
would be hard put to imagine. Much of what had for decades, even centuries,
seemed familiar and permanent is now passing rapidly into oblivion. The past, it
seems, really is another country: they did things differently there.
The expansion of communication offers a case in point. Until the
last decades of the 20th century most people in the world had limited access to
information; but – thanks to national education, state-controlled radio and
television and a common print culture – within any one state or nation or
community people were all likely to know many of the same things. Today the
opposite applies. Most people in the world outside of sub-Saharan Africa have
access to a near infinity of data. But in the absence of any common culture
beyond a small elite, and not always even there, the fragmented information and
ideas that people select or encounter are determined by a multiplicity of
tastes, affinities and interests. As the years pass, each one of us has less in
common with the fast-multiplying worlds of our contemporaries, not to speak of
the world of our forebears.
All of this is surely true – and it has disturbing implications
for the future of democratic governance. Nevertheless, disruptive change, even
global transformation, is not in itself unprecedented. The economic "globalisation"
of the late 19th century was no less turbulent except that its implications were
initially felt and understood by far fewer people. What is significant about the
present age of transformations is the unique insouciance with which we have
abandoned not merely the practices of the past but their very memory. A world
just recently lost is already half forgotten.
What then is it that we have misplaced in our haste to put the
20th century behind us? In the US at least we have forgotten the meaning of war.
There is a reason for this. In much of continental Europe, Asia and Africa, the
20th century was experienced as a cycle of wars. War in the last century
signified invasion, occupation, displacement, deprivation, destruction and mass
murder. Countries that lost wars often lost population, territory, resources,
security and independence. But even those countries that emerged formally
victorious had comparable experiences and usually remembered war much as the
losers did. Italy after World War I, China after World War II and France after
both wars might be cases in point: all were "winners" and all were devastated.
And then there are those countries that won a war but "lost the peace",
squandering the opportunities afforded them by their victory. The Western Allies
at Versailles and Israel in the decades following its June 1967 victory remain
the most telling examples.
Moreover, war in the 20th century frequently meant civil war:
often under the cover of occupation or "liberation". Civil war played a
significant role in the widespread "ethnic cleansing" and forced population
transfers of the 20th century, from India and Turkey to Spain and Yugoslavia.
Like foreign occupation, civil war is one of the terrible "shared" memories of
the past hundred years. In many countries, "putting the past behind us" – i.e.
agreeing to overcome or forget (or deny) a recent memory of internecine conflict
and intercommunal violence – has been a primary goal of post-war governments:
sometimes achieved, sometimes overachieved.
War was not just a catastrophe in its own right; it brought
other horrors in its wake. World War I led to an unprecedented militarisation of
society, the worship of violence and a cult of death that long outlasted the war
itself and prepared the ground for the political disasters that followed. States
and societies seized during and after World War II by Hitler or Stalin (or by
both, in sequence) experienced not just occupation and exploitation but
degradation and corrosion of the laws and norms of civil society. The very
structures of civilised life – regulations, laws, teachers, policemen, judges –
disappeared or else took on sinister significance: far from guaranteeing
security, the state itself became the leading source of insecurity. Reciprocity
and trust, whether in neighbours, colleagues, community or leaders, collapsed.
Behaviour that would be aberrant in conventional circumstances – theft,
dishonesty, dissemblance, indifference to the misfortune of others and the
opportunistic exploitation of their suffering – became not just normal but
sometimes the only way to save your family and yourself. Dissent or opposition
was stifled by universal fear.
War, in short, prompted behaviour that would have been
unthinkable as well as dysfunctional in peacetime. It is war, not racism or
ethnic antagonism or religious fervour, that leads to atrocity. War – total war
– has been the crucial antecedent condition for mass criminality in the modern
era. The first primitive concentration camps were set up by the British during
the Boer war of 1899-1902. Without World War I there would have been no Armenian
genocide and it is highly unlikely that either communism or fascism would have
seized hold of modern states. Without World War II there would have been no
Holocaust. Absent the forcible involvement of Cambodia in the Vietnam war, we
would never have heard of Pol Pot. As for the brutalising effect of war on
ordinary soldiers themselves, this of course has been copiously documented.3
The United States avoided almost all of that. Americans, perhaps
alone in the world, experienced the 20th century in a far more positive light.
The US was not invaded. It did not lose vast numbers of citizens, or huge
swathes of territory, as a result of occupation or dismemberment. Although
humiliated in distant neocolonial wars (in Vietnam and now in Iraq), the US has
never suffered the full consequences of defeat.4
Despite their ambivalence toward its recent undertakings, most Americans still
feel that the wars their country has fought were mostly "good wars". The US was
greatly enriched by its role in the two world wars and by their outcome, in
which respect it has nothing in common with Britain, the only other major
country to emerge unambiguously victorious from those struggles but at the cost
of near bankruptcy and the loss of empire. And compared with other major 20th
century combatants, the US lost relatively few soldiers in battle and suffered
hardly any civilian casualties.
This contrast merits statistical emphasis. In World War I, the
US suffered slightly fewer than 1,20,000 combat deaths. For the UK, France and
Germany the figures are respectively 8,85,000, 1.4 million and over two million.
In World War II, when the US lost about 4,20,000 armed forces in combat, Japan
lost 2.1 million, China 3.8 million, Germany 5.5 million and the Soviet Union an
estimated 10.7 million. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, DC records
the deaths of 58,195 Americans over the course of a war lasting 15 years: but
the French army lost double that number in six weeks of fighting in May-June
1940. In the US army’s costliest engagement of the century – the Ardennes
offensive of December 1944-January 1945 (the "battle of the Bulge") – 19,300
American soldiers were killed. In the first 24 hours of the battle of the Somme
(July 1, 1916) the British army lost more than 20,000 dead. At the battle of
Stalingrad the Red Army lost 7,50,000 men and the Wehrmacht almost as many.
With the exception of the generation of men who fought in World
War II, the United States thus has no modern memory of combat or loss remotely
comparable to that of the armed forces of other countries. But it is civilian
casualties that leave the most enduring mark on national memory and here the
contrast is piquant indeed. In World War II alone, the British suffered 67,000
civilian dead. In continental Europe, France lost 2,70,000 civilians. Yugoslavia
recorded over half a million civilian deaths, Germany 1.8 million, Poland 5.5
million and the Soviet Union an estimated 11.4 million. These aggregate figures
include some 5.8 million Jewish dead. Further afield, in China, the death count
exceeded 16 million. American civilian losses (excluding the merchant navy) in
both world wars amounted to less than 2,000 dead.
As a consequence, the United States today is the only advanced
democracy where public figures glorify and exalt the military, a sentiment
familiar in Europe before 1945 but quite unknown today. Politicians in the US
surround themselves with the symbols and trappings of armed prowess; even in
2008 American commentators excoriate allies that hesitate to engage in armed
conflict. I believe it is this contrasting recollection of war and its impact,
rather than any structural difference between the US and otherwise comparable
countries, which accounts for their dissimilar responses to international
challenges today. Indeed the complacent neoconservative claim that war and
conflict are things Americans understand – in contrast to naive Europeans with
their pacifistic fantasies – seems to me exactly wrong: it is Europeans (along
with Asians and Africans) who understand war all too well. Most Americans have
been fortunate enough to live in blissful ignorance of its true significance.
That same contrast may account for the distinctive quality of
much American writing on the cold war and its outcome. In European accounts of
the fall of communism, from both sides of the former iron curtain, the dominant
sentiment is one of relief at the closing of a long, unhappy chapter. Here in
the US however the story is typically recorded in a triumphalist key.5
And why not? For many American commentators and policymakers the message of the
20th century is that war works. Hence the widespread enthusiasm for our war on
Iraq in 2003 (despite strong opposition to it in most other countries). For
Washington war remains an option – on that occasion the first option. For the
rest of the developed world it has become a last resort.6
Ignorance of 20th century history does not just contribute to a
regrettable enthusiasm for armed conflict. It also leads to a misidentification
of the enemy. We have good reason to be taken up just now with terrorism and its
challenge. But before setting out on a hundred-year war to eradicate terrorists
from the face of the earth let us consider the following. Terrorists are nothing
new. Even if we exclude assassinations or attempted assassinations of presidents
and monarchs and confine ourselves to men and women who kill random unarmed
civilians in pursuit of a political objective, terrorists have been with us for
well over a century.
There have been anarchist terrorists, Russian terrorists, Indian
terrorists, Arab terrorists, Basque terrorists, Malay terrorists, Tamil
terrorists and dozens of others besides. There have been and still are Christian
terrorists, Jewish terrorists and Muslim terrorists. There were Yugoslav
("partisan") terrorists settling scores in World War II; Zionist terrorists
blowing up Arab marketplaces in Palestine before 1948; American-financed Irish
terrorists in Margaret Thatcher’s London; US-armed mujahideen terrorists in
1980s Afghanistan; and so on.
No one who has lived in Spain, Italy, Germany, Turkey, Japan,
the UK or France, not to speak of more habitually violent lands, could have
failed to notice the omnipresence of terrorists – using guns, bombs, chemicals,
cars, trains, planes and much else – over the course of the 20th century and
beyond. The only thing that has changed in recent years is the unleashing in
September 2001 of homicidal terrorism within the United States. Even that was
not wholly unprecedented: the means were new and the carnage unexampled but
terrorism on US soil was far from unknown over the course of the 20th century.
But what of the argument that terrorism today is different, a
"clash of cultures" infused with a noxious brew of religion and authoritarian
politics: "Islamofascism"? This too is an interpretation resting in large part
on a misreading of 20th century history. There is a triple confusion here. The
first consists of lumping together the widely varying national fascisms of
interwar Europe with the very different resentments, demands and strategies of
the (equally heterogeneous) Muslim movements and insurgencies of our own time –
and attaching the moral credibility of the anti-fascist struggles of the past to
our own more dubiously motivated military adventures.
A second confusion comes from conflating a handful of
religiously motivated stateless assassins with the threat posed in the 20th
century by wealthy modern states in the hands of totalitarian political parties
committed to foreign aggression and mass extermination. Nazism was a threat to
our very existence and the Soviet Union occupied half of Europe. But al-Qaeda?
The comparison insults the intelligence – not to speak of the memory of those
who fought the dictators. Even those who assert these similarities don’t appear
to believe them. After all, if Osama bin Laden were truly comparable to Hitler
or Stalin, would we really have responded to September 11 by invading...
Baghdad?
But the most serious mistake consists of taking the form for the
content: defining all the various terrorists and terrorisms of our time, with
their contrasting and sometimes conflicting objectives, by their actions alone.
It would be rather as though one were to lump together the Italian Red Brigades,
the German Baader-Meinhof gang, the Provisional IRA, the Basque ETA,
Switzerland’s Jura Separatists and the National Front for the Liberation of
Corsica; dismiss their differences as insignificant; label the resulting amalgam
of ideological kneecappers, bomb-throwers and political murderers "European
Extremism" (or "Christo-fascism" perhaps?)... and then declare uncompromising,
open-ended armed warfare against it.
This abstracting of foes and threats from their context – this
ease with which we have talked ourselves into believing that we are at war with
"Islamofascists", "extremists" from a strange culture, who dwell in some distant
"Islamistan", who hate us for who we are and seek to destroy "our way of life" –
is a sure sign that we have forgotten the lesson of the 20th century: the
ease with which war and fear and dogma can bring us to demonise others, deny
them a common humanity or the protection of our laws and do unspeakable things
to them.
How else are we to explain our present indulgence for the
practice of torture? For indulge it we assuredly do. The 20th century began with
the Hague Conventions on the laws of war. As of 2008 the 21st century has to its
credit the Guantánamo Bay detention camp. Here and in other (secret) prisons,
the United States routinely tortures terrorists or suspected terrorists. There
is ample 20th century precedent for this, of course, and not only in
dictatorships. The British tortured terrorists in their East African colonies as
late as the 1950s. The French tortured captured Algerian terrorists in the
"dirty war" to keep Algeria French.7
At the height of the Algerian war Raymond Aron published two
powerful essays urging France to quit Algeria and concede its independence:
this, he insisted, was a pointless war that France could not win. Some years
later Aron was asked why, when opposing French rule in Algeria, he did not also
add his voice to those who were speaking out against the use of torture in
Algeria. "But what would I have achieved by proclaiming my opposition to
torture?" he replied. "I have never met anyone who is in favour of torture."8
Well, times have changed. In the US today there are many
respectable, thinking people who favour torture – under the appropriate
circumstances and when applied to those who merit it. Professor Alan Dershowitz
of Harvard Law School writes that "the simple cost-benefit analysis for
employing such non-lethal torture [to extract time-sensitive information from a
prisoner] seems overwhelming." Professor Jean Bethke Elshtain of the University
of Chicago’s School of Divinity acknowledges that torture remains a horror and
is "in general [sic]...forbidden". But when interrogating "prisoners in the
context of a deadly and dangerous war against enemies who know no limits...
there are moments when this rule may be overridden."9
These chilling assertions are echoed by New York’s Senator
Charles Schumer (a Democrat) who at a Senate hearing in 2004 claimed that "there
are probably very few people in this room or in America who would say that
torture should never ever be used." Certainly not Supreme Court Justice Antonin
Scalia, who informed the BBC’s Radio 4 in February 2008 that it would be absurd
to say that you couldn’t torture. In Scalia’s words, "Once you acknowledge that,
we’re into a different game. How close does the threat have to be? How severe
can the infliction of pain be? I don’t think these are easy questions at all...
But I certainly know you can’t come in smugly and with great self-satisfaction
and say, ‘Oh, it’s torture and therefore it’s no good’."10
But it was precisely that claim, that "it’s torture and
therefore it’s no good", which until very recently distinguished democracies
from dictatorships. We pride ourselves on having defeated the "evil empire" of
the Soviets. Indeed so. But perhaps we should read again the memoirs of those
who suffered at the hands of that empire – the memoirs of Eugen Loebl, Artur
London, Jo Langer, Lena Constante and countless others – and then compare the
degrading abuses they suffered with the treatments approved and authorised by
President Bush and the US Congress. Are they so very different?11
Torture certainly "works". As the history of 20th century police
states suggests, under extreme torture most people will say anything (including,
sometimes, the truth). But to what end? Thanks to information extracted from
terrorists under torture, the French army won the 1957 battle of Algiers. Just
over four years later the war was over, Algeria was independent and the
"terrorists" had won. But France still carries the stain and the memory of the
crimes committed in its name. Torture really is no good, especially for
republics. And as Aron noted many decades ago, "torture – and lies – [are] the
accompaniment of war... What needed to be done was end the war."12
We are slipping down a slope. The sophistic distinctions we draw
today in our war on terror – between the rule of law and "exceptional"
circumstances, between citizens (who have rights and legal protections) and
non-citizens to whom anything can be done, between normal people and
"terrorists", between "us" and "them" – are not new. The 20th century saw them
all invoked. They are the selfsame distinctions that licensed the worst horrors
of the recent past: internment camps, deportation, torture and murder – those
very crimes that prompt us to murmur "never again". So what exactly is it that
we think we have learnt from the past? Of what possible use is our
self-righteous cult of memory and memorials if the United States can build its
very own internment camp and torture people there?
Far from escaping the 20th century, we need, I think, to go back
and look a bit more carefully. We need to learn again – or perhaps for the first
time – how war brutalises and degrades winners and losers alike and what happens
to us when, having heedlessly waged war for no good reason, we are encouraged to
inflate and demonise our enemies in order to justify that war’s indefinite
continuance. And perhaps, in this protracted electoral season, we could put a
question to our aspirant leaders: Daddy (or, as it might be, Mommy), what did
you do to prevent the war? n
(Tony Judt is university professor at New York University. His
new book, Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century,
was published in April 2008. This article was published in The New York
Review of Books, May 1, 2008.)
Courtesy: The New York Review of Books; www.nybooks.com
Notes
1 Never such innocence,
Never before or since,
As changed itself to past
Without a word – the men
Leaving the gardens tidy,
The thousands of marriages
Lasting a little while longer:
Never such innocence again.
– Philip Larkin, MCMXIV
2 See, for example, Lytton Strachey, Eminent Victorians,
first published in 1918.
3 See Vernichtungskrieg: Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941-1944,
edited by Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1995). Many
German soldiers on the eastern front and in Yugoslavia recorded their worst
crimes for the delectation of family and friends. The American prison guards in
Abu Ghraib are their lineal descendants.
4 The defeated South did indeed experience just such
consequences following the civil war, however. And its subsequent humiliation,
resentment and backwardness are the American exception that illustrates the
rule.
5 See my discussion of The Cold War: A New History
(Penguin, 2005) by John Lewis Gaddis in The New York Review, March 23,
2006.
6 It should be noted however that a younger generation of
political leaders in the UK – starting with Tony Blair – has proven almost as
indifferent to the lessons of the 20th century as their American contemporaries.
7 See Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story
of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya (Henry Holt, 2005); Marnia Lazreg, Torture
and the Twilight of Empire: From Algiers to Baghdad (Princeton University
Press, 2008); and Darius Rejali, Torture and Democracy (Princeton
University Press, 2007).
8 Raymond Aron, La Tragédie Algérienne (Paris: Plon,
1957), L’Algérie et la République (Paris: Plon, 1958) and Le
Spectateur engagé (Paris: Julliard, 1981), p. 210. For a first-hand account
of torture, see Henri Alleg, The Question (Bison, 2006; originally
published in 1958 as La Question). La Torture dans la République
by the late Pierre Vidal-Naquet is a penetrating account of how torture rots the
political system that authorises it. First published in English in 1963, this
book has long been out of print. It should be retranslated and made required
reading for every Congressman and presidential candidate in the US.
9 Alan M. Dershowitz, Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the
Threat, Responding to the Challenge (Yale University Press, 2002), p. 144;
Jean Bethke Elshtain, "Reflections on the Problem of ‘Dirty Hands’", in
Torture: A Collection, edited by Sanford Levinson (Oxford University Press,
2004), pp. 80–83.
10 Senator Schumer is quoted in The Wall Street Journal,
November 2, 2007. For Justice Scalia’s remarks see www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-02-13-scalia_N.htm.
11 Lena Constante, The Silent Escape: Three Thousand Days in
Romanian Prisons (University of California Press, 1995); Jo Langer, Une
Saison à Bratislava (Paris: Seuil, 1981); Eugen Loebl, My Mind on Trial
(Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976); Artur Gerard London, L’Aveu, dans
l’engrenage du Procès de Prague (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).
12 Le Spectateur engagé, pp. 210–211.
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